The Sogdian language belongs to the Northeastern branch of Iranian languages and, during the 3rd to 8th centuries CE, was considered the international language of Central Asia, exerting influence as far as China. According to well-known linguists and historians from both the East and the West, the Sogdian language served as both a spoken and written medium for many centuries prior to the Arab conquest. During this period, the Sogdians were the first to lay the foundation for the “Great Silk Road,” establishing a new trade route connecting the eastern shores of the Mediterranean with China.

In the 9th–10th centuries, with the rise of the Samanid dynasty and the development and spread of the Persian language (Porsi Dari) as a state and international language in the regions of Transoxiana and Khorasan and beyond, the Sogdian language gradually lost its function in Central Asia. However, according to some sources, Sogdian was still spoken in villages around Bukhara and Samarkand until the end of the 10th century. The renowned Arab geographer, traveler, and historian al-Muqaddasi reported that the Sogdian language persisted among the mountain peoples of the Zeravshan Valley (i.e., today's Panjakent, Ayni, and Matcha districts of the Republic of Tajikistan) up until approximately the 13th–14th centuries. Evidence of this can be found in the geographical names (names of villages, mountains, valleys, rivers, etc.), as well as the names of certain trees, plants, and herbs that have survived in the Sogdian language to this day. The language of the Yaghnob people (located in the Ayni District of Sughd Region) is considered a modern form of Sogdian, or more precisely, one of the dialects of the ancient Sogdian language, and it is still spoken by the people of this valley.

Research conducted by prominent Soviet Orientalists such as - V. Livshits, A. Freiman, P. Lurye, A. Khromov, and others, as well as European Orientalists like - W. Henning, I. Gershevitch, J. Lazard, and Iranian linguist B. Gharib, and Tajik lexicographers and linguists including - T. Zekhni, O. Makhmadjonov, S. Mirzoev, and others, has shown that the Sogdian language—with its script and alphabet—had a unique grammatical and lexical structure. In their descriptions and interpretations of the Mugh Mountain Fortress Manuscripts, Soviet Orientalists placed particular emphasis on the lexical meanings of Sogdian words and the grammar of the Sogdian language, publishing several books and scientific articles on the topic [Sogdian Collection, 1934; Freiman, 1938, 1947, 1962; Kaufman, 1956; Livshits, 1962, 2020; Bogolyubov, 1963].

In the work of European Orientalists, based on manuscripts found in well-known European libraries, the Sogdian language and its lexical, semantic, phonetic, morphological, and grammatical features, as well as its loanwords, were studied in greater depth [Gershevitch, 1954; Gharib, 2004; Henning, 1977].

Research by Tajik linguists has mainly focused on the study of the Yaghnobi language as a dialect of Sogdian and the etymological interpretation of toponyms and microtoponyms in the Yaghnob Gorge and the upper reaches of the Zeravshan River (particularly in the  Matcha Region) [Zekhni, 1987; Lurye, 2004, 2015; Mirzoev, 1998, 2008; Makhmadjonov, 2010; Khromov, 1962, 1963, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1972].

It is important to note that despite being classified as a "dead language," many Sogdian words are still used in modern Tajik-Persian. This was first reported by the Soviet Orientalist V. Livshits in his article “Sogdian Words in the Tajik Language,” where he particularly noted the presence of over 30 Sogdian words in the poems of the founder of classical Tajik literature, Abuabdullo Rudaki. These include: оғоз, оруғда, олуғда, патфуз, полик, пасок, чуғз, чархушт, роғ, роз, ғирев, нағз, фажок, фажогин, варғ, алфағдан, and others [Livshits, 1957, pp. 34–35].

A deeper analysis and study of the vocabulary of the Sogdian and Yaghnobi languages reveals that many Sogdian-origin words are still in use in modern Tajik-Persian. These words are primarily included in modern Tajik language dictionaries, such as the Tajik Language Dictionary (1969) and the Explanatory Dictionary of the Tajik Language (2010). They include:

1. a) Words denoting objects and phenomena:

Examples include:

абрешим – silk thread spun by a silkworm in its cocoon;

ағба – the lowest part of a mountain slope;

амбор / анбор – a storage place for goods or grain;

ангор – arable land, field;

ангушт – finger;

андом – a person’s physical appearance;

анҷом – end, conclusion;

анҷуман – a place where people gather;

арғанд – angry, furious;

арғушт – a kneeling dance;

армуғон – a gift brought back from a journey;

бозу – upper arm;

болишт – a mat placed under the bed;

бум – land, country;

бурд – profit, benefit;

бохт – to lose;

варғ – dam;

варз – height;

вот – raised edge of land, boundary;

говшанг – stick used to drive cattle;

гунҷишк – sparrow;

ғурм – tree canker;

ғавғо – noise, disorder;

ғанг – dried mulberry branches left after being eaten by caterpillars;

ғар – mountain, hill;

ғарч – piece of leather sewn into a shoe sole;

ғев / ғав – loud sound, shout;

ғирев – cry, plea;

ғил – peeled fruit;

ғиҷим – flattened, compressed;

ғот / ғойт – time, period;

ғир – mud, clay;

ғирек – soil;

ғут / ғуч – crowded, dense;

ғулинг – dried apricot fruit;

ғули / ғулу – dense accumulation of objects in one place;

ғурунг – mumbling speech;

дағар – rough, uneven (e.g. "дағар road");

дареғ – regret;

дарғ – river or water barrier;

дахмаса – extreme worry or headache;

дахма – grave;

диз / диж – fortress;

думбул – unripe grain;

дӯғ – to threaten;

дунг(ӣ) – bump, raised spot;

дез – color, lava;

доғ – very hot, burning;

дур – far, distant;

дурушт – rough;

ёна – steep place, cliff;

ёфа / ёва – nonsense;

жи – lake, pond;

жик – small pond;

иск – height;

зевар / зивар – ornament;

зиғ – mat;

зинда / зинта – living being;

зихна – stingy, greedy;

зуғ – stream, canal;

зулик – black water worm;

зумухт – things that pucker the lips (e.g. pomegranate peel);

испич – fireproof clay;

истеғ – standing upright;

кадвода – foundation, base;

кант – city;

нов – gorge, ravine;

лод – wall;

кавша – to chew;

кад – home, dwelling;

кадвора – house roof;

калан(д) – digging tool;

калахч / карахш – dry film on a wound;

карахт – numbness;

карашма – coquetry;

кишоварз – farmer;

коза – reed house or tent;

кокул – tuft of hair;

ком – aim, desire;

куллук – bound hands and feet of prisoners;

карғ – large black rocks;

қарс – scarf, kerchief;

қурум – stony ground;

 ланҷ – limp;

  линг – each of two bundles tied together or loads suspended on each side of a saddle;

  линга – sack;

  лӯк – one who walks on knees and hands;

 лӯс – deceiver, trickster;

  манг – one who speaks quietly and slowly;

  марғ – a kind of wild grass (green grass);

 мардум – human, human being;

  марғула – curly;

  марз – arable land enclosed by a fence;

  метин – small iron pick for breaking stones or digging earth;

  мурғ – generic name for birds, bird;

  мурда (мурта) – corpse, lifeless body;

  мурӣ – special opening in the chimney of a house, chimney;

  мусича – bird resembling a pheasant;

  нағз – good, pleasant;

  нағма – melody;

  нуқра – precious white metal;

  нуқрафом – silver, silvery-colored;

оғор – damp, wet;

  озарм – compassion, love, mercy;

  озар – pain, suffering, agony;

  ориғ – bad, evil;

  ором – quiet, silent, peaceful;

  оруқ – hiccup;

  осим – uneasy, anxious;

  осмон – the expanse around the Earth that looks blue and dome‑shaped;

  пағна – ladder, stepladder;

  пайғола – bowl, dish;

  пажвок – echo of a voice;

  пайғом – good news, message;

  пал(ак) – plot of cultivated land around which a trench for irrigation is dug;

  палав – a dish made of rice, fat/oil, vegetables, and meat;

  паланд (паландин) – door frame;

  палм – manure;

  палмос (пармос) – touch, access to something;

  палонҷ (панонҷ) – two wives belonging to one husband;

  пасок (басок) – wreath;

  парахса – splashing water, oil etc. into someone’s face;

  пардаҳт – to depopulate, to empty;

  пичинг – to throw a harsh word at someone;

  пода – herd of cows, sheep, goats;

 полиз – place where herbs and vegetables are sown;

  пур (пурн) – full, complete, perfect;

  пӯст – what covers the body of a person or animal (skin, hide);

  пӯстлоқ (пӯстлох) – bark of tree trunk or branch;

  работ – inn built at the beginning of caravan route;

  рахш – mixed red‑white color;

  ревад – ridge, hill;

  роғ – mountain slope, plain;

  рем – tree similar to a poplar;

  роз – desire, longing;

  савора (сувора) – one who travels from place to place on a horse;

  сакалту – idler, wanderer;

  сақич – chewing mix made from wax and pine resin;

  саланғ – swaying;

  салқин – cool, mild (not hot);

  санг (санк) — hard stone;

  сапал – foot, hoof (of horse or donkey);

  сингор – similar, alike;

  синча – to look closely and inspect something;

  синҷ – wooden beam in wooden structures;

  сипос – thanks, gratitude;

  сича – bird;

  соғу — wooden container for collecting water, milk etc.;

  суроғ — to seek, to find out, to ask (about the whereabouts of something or someone);

  сутун — long thick pole placed vertically to support a roof;

  теға (тиға) – highest point of something (e.g. mountain peak);

  телба – to hurry, to rush;

  уғур(ак) – wooden or metal vessel for grinding wheat flour, crushing dried fruits etc., mortar;

  уреб – crooked, bent upward or downward;

  ускуна – building tools;

  фаларз – piece of cloth or material used to tie something;

  фаларзанг – food taken from a wedding or party;

  фарғар – small stream separating from a river;

  фаришта – a being wiser and superior to humans (angel‑like being);

  фармон – order, command, decree;

  фармондор – ruler;

  фартут – weak and helpless old man;

  фом – color;

  харош — anger;

  чағбут (ҷахбут) – old wool or cotton between quilts, pillows etc.;

  чағз – frog;

  чарбу – internal fat of animals;

  чуғз – owl (bird name);

  чараска — drops of water, dirt, or sparks of fire;

  чах (чағ) – effort;

  чароғ – lighting device made of a wick and oil, burning in a special ceramic or cast iron vessel;

  чарс – fragile, brittle;

  чархушт – a special vessel or basin in which grapes are pressed and juice squeezed;

  чахс – firewood, sticks and twigs;

  чиғ (чиғил) – sieve with large holes for sifting grain from chaff or cleaning soil from stones and sand;

  чинга – dry sticks;

  чоп – lie, gossip;

  чоплӯс – lying chatterer;

  чор – narrow, thin;

  чорбоғ – narrow enclosed garden;

  чоруқ – type of footwear;

  ҷазза – small pieces of fat remaining in oil after frying;

  ҷарчӣ (ҷорчӣ) – one who loudly proclaims governmental orders, the loss or found items in streets and markets;

 ҷеғ  – to call someone to oneself;

 ҷиғда – piece of old clothing;

  ҷияк – woven or embroidered braid used to trim edges of a robe, skullcap etc.;

  ҷӯл – horse’s cover;

  шабдез – as black as night;

  шабушк – small wingless, blood‑sucking insect appearing when dirt gets on the body of a person or animal;

  шағ – horn, tree branch; or animal horn;

  шағал – large sand grain, pebble;

  шағол – jackal, carnivorous animal from the dog family that eats carrion;

  шанг – good‑natured, well‑mannered;

  шангу – ignorant, foolish;

  шах – cliff, rock, boulder;

  шудгор – to plough and turn over the arable layer of soil with a plough;

  яла – open;

  яланг(и) – open land, free from buildings and cultivation;

  яхнӣ – scraps of food, etc.

 

1. b) Words Expressing Qualities and Characteristics:

алағда – scattered;

алфағда (алфахта) – collected, gathered;

анбошта – piled up, filled;

арағда – embarrassed;

арғанда – angry, enraged;

басағда – made, prepared;

колуфта – confused;

олуғда – angry, enraged;

оруғда – ruthless;

осағда – prepared, ready;

оғушта – contaminated, mixed, wet;

осуғда (осухта) – half-burned wood;

ошуфта – embarrassed, anxious;

палағда – spoiled (e.g., rotten eggs);

парағда – leftover;

палашта – unclean;

пасағда – ready, prepared;

патранк – feeling down, depressed;

сангсор – stoned, hit by a stone;

тарағда – broken, unconscious;

фархашта – lying (on the ground);

фархунда – happy, cheerful, lively, etc.

 

1. c) Words Expressing Action and Movement:

авборидан – to swallow without thinking;

алфанҷидан – to gather, collect;

алфактан (алфахдан) – to accumulate, fill up;

анбоштан – to collect, store up;

анҷомидан – to finish, bring to an end (to complete, finalize);

анҷухидан – to wrinkle (skin of the face or body);

бароғолидан – to provoke into war;

бахсонидан (пахсонидан) – to make someone sad and depressed;

буғунҷидан – to steal;

ғалтидан – to fall from above;

ғелидан – to move side to side;

ғеҷидан – to move around on hands and knees (without standing up);

ғиревидан – to shout;

ғурунгидан – to mutter, speak under one’s breath;

дафшонидан (душонидан) – to stick together (to get glued or clumped);

кашоидан – to chew;

лайидан – to lament, to wail;

линҷидан (ланҷидан) – to pull out;

лухсидан – to rot, to smell;

лӯсидан – to deceive;

мангидан – to speak quietly and slowly, to whisper;

оғолидан – to salt each other (possibly in a ritual sense);

ороғидан – to moisten, to wet;

опушкидан – to pick fruits left on the tree after the rest have fallen;

ошкукидан – to stumble and fall;

пажулидан – to wither;

палмосидан (пармосидан) – to touch, to hold with hands;

пучидан – to press a part of the body hard with two fingers until it hurts;

пӯкидан – to lick, to blurt out a word or secret unknowingly;

таранҷидан – to crush;

тосидан – to rot, to smell (like rotting fruit);

фарғардан – to wet, to rub, to rub against each other;

фархаштан – to lie down for a long time;

харошидан – to anger, to infuriate;

чахидан (чағидан) – to wrestle, to strive;

чопидан – to seize someone’s property by force, to rob, to loot;

чошидан – to scatter, to spread out;

удрушидан – to manually pluck and throw leaves off a tree branch;

шекардан (шикардан) – to make a small pit/hole;

шекокидан – to stumble, etc.

 

 d) Names of Places and Settlements:

Toponyms and microtoponyms of the republic, as well as plant names, are valuable historical and cultural heritage and treasures, each of which contains the ancient history of the Tajik people and the Tajik language. For example, in the Zeravshan Valley and Yaghnob Gorge, thousands of place and plant names are still used in their Sogdian form, such as:

Cities and villages: Саразм, Самарканд, Панҷакент (Панҷекат), Артуч, Ревад, Мадм, Вашан, Вешкант, Варз, Зосун, Испағн, Путин, Фатмев, Рарз, Похут, Шаватк, Пашут, Утоғар, Вешаб, Дарғ, Шамтич, Масчо, Ревомутк, Ғузн, Рогиф, Худгиф, Чоре (Чореб), Пит (Петеб, Питеб), Канчоч, Махшеват, Дижик, Нарвад, Марзич, Пишанза, Ғавеб, Яғноб, Зимухч, Пилтаровут, Марғеб, Шашкат, etc.

Names of Rivers, Mountains, and Valleys: Анзоб, Киштут, Шоғар, Ғаланг, Зуеб, Ишкорт, Ғанз, Фон, Шофот, Молазой, Ёназой, Вайтзой, Порзой, Курч, etc.

Names of Trees and Plants: арвода, арғич, будоғ, бурс, виғна, зағоса, ғуш, рем, катк, кашнич, курт, ғудурм, вағнич, тараппа, зағала, зирк, калафс, калаф, матор, оғу, пантич, пури, рок, роба, сир, фарк, чарсак, шибит, шибоғ, etc.

Conclusion:

Thus, Sogdian words still occupy an important place in the modern Tajik language, and their deeper study and research — especially of existing geographical terms from the perspective of structure, meaning, and etymology — is one of the promising tasks for Tajik linguists.

 

Pirmakhmad Nurov

Doctor of Philology, National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan

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